QUIZ-22

Q1. Under which of the following project, a team of women officers of the Indian Navy would circumnavigate the globe on an Indian-built sail boatINSV Tarini?

(a) SarasParikrama Project

(b) NavsagarParikrama

(c) Bon Voyage

(d) NavikaSagarParikrama

(e) Sea-Sagar Project

S1. Ans.(d)

Sol. Under project Navika Sagar Parikrama, a team of women officers of the Indian Navy would circumnavigate the globe on an Indian-built sail boat INSV Tarini. This is the first ever Indian circumnavigation of the globe by an all-women crew.

Q2. The Ministry of Defence has decided to delegate administrative and financial powers to the 'BRO' to avoid delays on account of references between the Chief Engineer, HQ DGBR and the Ministry. BRO stands for _____________.

(a) Basic RAW Organisation

(b) Borrowing Roads Organisation

(c) Border Roads Organisation

(d) Border Roads Operation

(e) Border Real Organisation

S2. Ans.(c)
Sol. The Ministry of Defence has decided to delegate administrative and financial powers to the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) to avoid delays on account of references between the Chief Engineer, HQ DGBR and the Ministry.

Q3. Name the Bank that has topped the share of willful default to PSBs.

(a) Punjab National Bank

(b) State Bank of India

(c) Allahabad Bank

(d) Dena Bank

(e) Indian Overseas Bank

S3. Ans.(b)
Sol. At 27%, SBI tops share of wilful default to PSBs. The country’s largest lender, SBI, accounts for over 27 per cent of the total amount owed to public-sector banks by wilful defaulters. As many as 1,762 wilful defaulters owed SBI Rs25,104 crore.

Q4. India of the following country has established the new two-by-two ministerial dialogue to enhance strategic coordination between them?

(a) Japan

(b) China

(c) Indonesia

(d) Switzerland

(e) US

S4. Ans.(e)
Sol. India and US have established new two-by-two (2 by 2) ministerial dialogue to enhance strategic coordination between them and maintaining peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. The new dialogue format will replace the earlier India-US Strategic and Commercial Dialogue.

Q5. State-run power transmission utility ____________ recently announced that it will get a loan of USD 500 million from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for its various projects.

(a) HPCL

(b) Power Grid Corp

(c) IOCL

(d) BEL

(e) NDRF

S5. Ans.(b)
Sol. State-run power transmission utility Power Grid Corp announced that it will get a loan of USD 500 million from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for its various projects.

Q6. Name the 12-year-old Indian-origin boy who has been crowned as the UK’s ‘Child Genius’ in a popular television quiz competition.

(a) Sameer Sana

(b) Kuldeep Rana

(c) Rahul Doshi

(d) Ramay Deva

(e) Kamal Ram

S6. Ans.(c)
Sol. A 12-year-old Indian-origin boy named Rahul Doshi has been crowned as the UK’s ‘Child Genius’ in a popular television quiz competition, days after he became an overnight sensation after answering all questions correctly.

Q7. The US with which of the following country has begun a 10-day-long annual military exercise named Ulchi Freedom Guardian drill?

(a) South Korea

(b) Japan

(c) North Korea

(d) Indonesia

(e) India

S7. Ans.(a)
Sol. The US and South Korea began a 10-day-long annual military exercise. The Ulchi Freedom Guardian drill is a computer-simulated defensive exercise designed to enhance readiness and maintain stability on the Korean peninsula.

Q8. The scientists of which country have developed the world’s smallest surgical robot which could transform daily operations for tens of thousands of patients?

(a) Canada

(b) France

(c) USA

(d) UK

(e) India

S8. Ans.(d)
Sol. British scientists have developed the worlds smallest surgical robot which could transform daily operations for tens of thousands of patients. A team of 100 scientists and engineers have used low-cost technology originally developed for mobile phones and space industry.

Q9. Textiles Ministry has recently inaugurated Jharkhand’s first textiles manufacturing and export unit ‘Orient Craft Ltd’. Who is the present Minister of Textiles in India?

(a) Prakash Javadkar

(b) Smriti Irani

(c) Uma Bharati

(d) Kalraj Mishra

(e) Ravi Shankar Prasad

S9. Ans.(b)
Sol. Textiles Ministry has recently inaugurated Jharkhand’s first textiles manufacturing and export unit ‘Orient Craft Ltd’. Smriti Irani is the present Minister of Textiles in India.

Q10. Name the athlete who has topped the Forbes’ list of highest paid female athletes of 2017 with $27 million.

(a) Maria Sharapova

(b) Venus Williams

(c) Serena Williams

(d) Caroline Wozniacki

(e) Victoria Azarenka

S10. Ans.(c)
Sol. American Tennis Player Serena Williams has topped the Forbes’ list of highest paid female athletes of 2017 with $27 million in earnings between June 2016 and June 2017.

Q11. Who is the present Prime Minister of Nepal?

(a) Pushpa Kamal Dahal

(b) Bidhya Devi Bhandari

(c) SamvalSinha

(d) SherBahadurDeuba

(e) Arinadam Kumar

S11. Ans.(d)
Sol. In his first foreign visit after assuming office, Nepalese Prime Minister SherBahadurDeuba will arrive on a four-day trip.

Q12. The first regional centre of the New Development Bank was officially opened recently in ____________.

(a) Oman

(b) Canada

(c) China

(d) South Korea

(e) South Africa

S12. Ans.(e)
Sol. The first regional centre of the New Development Bank, set up by India and other BRICS nations, was officially opened by South African President Jacob Zuma and the bank's Indian head K V Kamath.

Q13. Nestle India has tied up with ____________ for the launch of its new Nutrilicious range of Maggi Noodles.

(a) Amazon India

(b) Flipkart

(c) eBay

(d) Alibaba

(e) NDB

S13. Ans.(a)
Sol. Nestle India has tied up with Amazon India for the launch of its new Nutrilicious range of Maggi Noodles. The new range will be available first on Amazon.in, and the company, subsequently, aims to roll it out across retail outlets in India.

Q14. Rajasthan government and state-owned oil firm HPCL inked an agreement to form a joint venture company for Barmer petroleum refinery and petrochemical complex. Who is the current CEO, Chairman, Managing Director of HPCL?

(a) Sanjeev Kumar

(b) S Christopher

(c) M K Surana

(d) Sameer Shah

(e) Avantika Sharma

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. Rajasthan government and state-owned oil firm HPCL inked an agreement to form a joint venture company for Barmer petroleum refinery and petrochemical complex. M K Surana is the current CEO, Chairman, Managing Director of HPCL.

Q15. Who is the present Prime Minister of UK?

(a) David Cameron

(b) Gordon Brown

(c) Theresa May

(d) Tony Blair

(e) John Major

S15. Ans.(c)
Sol. The Capital of UK is London. Theresa May is the PM of UK.

Cropping Seasons and type of farming

Cropping Seasons and type of farming

Cropping Season in India

India has many growing seasons due to prevalence of high temperature through a long period. Different crop seasons are:

Kharif: 

• Crops are sown at the beginning of the South -West monsoon and harvested at the end of the South -West monsoon.
• Important crops: Jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton, Jute, groundnut, sugarcane, tobacco etc.

Rabi: 

• Crops need relatively cool climate during the period of growth but warm climate during the germination of their seed and maturation.
• Sowing season- (October -December) and harvesting season (February - April).
• Important Crops: Wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, masur, peas and potatoes.

Zaid:

• Crops which are being raised throughout the year due to artificial irrigation.
• (i) Zaid Kharif: Sown in August-September and harvested in December-January. Important crops include rice, jowar, rapeseed, cotton and oilseeds.
• (ii) Zaid Rabi: Sown in February - March and harvested in April -May. Important crops are watermelon, cucumber, leafy and other vegetables.
• Total geographical area of India: 328.7 m. ha.
• Total New sown Area: 140.27 m. ha. (46.12%)
• Total Net Irrigated Area: 38.80 m. ha (27.66% of net sown area).                              

Types of Farming in India

1. Irrigation Farming

An irrigation farming system relies on help from an irrigation system supplying water from a river, reservoir, tank, or well. As India grows and there is an increasing demand for food, water is becoming more and more crucial. Farming methods should be focused on sustaining or recycling water.

2. Shifting Cultivation: 

Shifting Cultivation refers to the form of cultivation where a large area is cultivated for few years and then abandoned for some time until the fertility of the land is restored naturally.In tribal India shifting cultivation is widely prevalent, though it is known by different names.

• The Naga call it Jhum Cultivation;
• The Bhuiya distinguish two forms of it, dahi and koman;
• The Maria of Bastar calls it penda;
• The Khond refer to it as podu;
• And the Baiga call it bewar

3. Commercial Agriculture

Commercial agriculture systems involve large-scale plantations, such as those used for wheat, cotton, sugarcane, tea, rubber, and corn. The yields are exported to other countries for a profit. There are three types of commercial agriculture systems:

• Intensive commercial farming: With small landholdings and a high population, many farms use a lot of manpower on a relatively small piece of land.
• Extensive commercial farming: This is the opposite of intensive commercial farming. A small workforce is applied to a large piece of land. Cultivation depends on mechanical methods.
• Plantation agriculture: A plantation is a large piece of land with an estate (typically in sub-tropical or tropical countries) where crops are cultivated and then sold internationally as opposed to locally.

4. Ley Farming

This type of farming is used to restore soil fertility in India’s drylands. A plot of land is used for grain or other crops and when the soil starts to degrade, the land is left uncultivated. It is used to grow hay or as a pasture for grazing animals. After a number of years, it can be used for crops again as the nutrients are restored by ploughing. Land erosion during the ley period is also prevented by the roots of the grass.

5. Plantation Farming

As mentioned before, this is the large-scale cultivation of one crop on an estate or vast property. This system is designed to make a profit and as such requires that all technology and techniques be efficient. Tea, coffee, and rubber are all commonly-grown on plantation farms. Teak wood, bamboo, and timber are also occasionally farmed using this method.

6. Crop Rotation

This system is a type of subsistence farming. Usually, there are one or more farmers responsible for the labour and the produce is for their own consumption. A crop rotation schedule includes different varieties of crops such as wheat, barley, mustard, or millet being grown during alternating seasons. The benefits are that weeds, pests, and diseases are controlled, while soil fertility is maintained.

7. Co-Operative Farming

Cooperative farming systems in India have only recently appeared. The aim of these systems is to combine land resources and farmers so that everyone benefits. There is huge potential to build on this method in India; unfortunately funding has been slow to make it possible. Families are attached to their land and unwilling to give it up to be shared in a cooperative system, farmers fear they will lose their jobs, and there is an immense amount of propaganda related to “new” lines of thinking.

Some facts about Indian Agriculture

1. India ranks 7th in the world in terms of total geographical area but 2nd in terms of cultivated land.
2. India has total geographical area of 328.7 million hectares out of which142.60 m hectares is the net sown area. It is about 46.59%. Arunachal Pradesh has only 3.2 percent area under net cultivation while in Haryana and Punjab it is 82.20 percent.
3. In Punjab, more than 94% of the total cropped area is irrigated.
4. In India, out of the net cropped area of 142.82m hectares, only 55.14 million hectares (38.5%) are irrigated.   
5. India stands next only to China in the production of rice contributing 21.5percent of the world population.
6. Bengal is the largest rice producing state contributing to more than 14.6% of the rice production of India, but in term of yield per hectare Punjab and Haryana occupy the top rank.
7. Soviet Union, United States and China are the countries which produces more wheat than India. In term of production U.P. ranks first while in terms of yield Punjab ranks first in India.
8. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil and it has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation.
9. India grows 7% of the total world production of tobacco which is next only to China, U.S.A and Brazil.
10. Kerala is considered as the “spice state of India”.
11. “Harrison” and “Virginia Gold” are the high yielding varieties of tobacco.

Industries of India

Industries of India

Iron and steel industry

• First steel industry at Kulti, Near Jharia, West Bengal – Bengal iron works company in 1870
• First large scale steal plant TISCO at Jamshedpur in 1907 followed by IISCO at Burnpur in 1919. Both belonged to private sector
• The first public sector unit was “Vishveshvaraya Iron and Stell works” at Bhadrawat

             Location                 Assistance

1. Rourkela(Orrisa)        Germany
2. Bhilai(MP)        Russian government
3. Durgapur(WB)                British government
4. Bokaro(Jharkhand)        Russian government 
5. Burnpur(WB)        Acquired from private sector in 1976
6. Vishakhapattnam(AP)      Russian government

• All these are managed by SAIL(at present all important steel plants except TISCO, are under public sector)
• Steel Authority of India Ltd(SAIL) was established in 1974 and was made responsible for the development of the steel industry
• Presently India is the eighth largest steel producing country in the world.

Jute industry

• Jute industry is an important industry for a country like India, because not only it earns foreign exchange but also provides substantial employment opportunities in agriculture and industrial sectors
• Its first modernised industrial unit was established at Reshra in West Bengal in 1855
• The jute industry in the country is traditionally export oriented. India ranks number one in the raw jute and juite goods production and number two in export of jute goods in the world.

Cotton and textile industry

• Oldest industry of India, and employees largest number of workers
• It is the largest organised and broad-based industry which accounts for 4% of GDP, 20% of manufacturing value-added and one third of total export earnings.
• The first Indian modernised cotton cloth mill was established in 1818 at Fort Gloaster near Calcutta but this mill was not successful. The second mill named “Mumbai’s spinning and weaving Co.” Was established in 1854 at Bombay by KGN Daber

Sugar industry

• Sugar industry is the second largest industry after cotton textile industry among agriculture-based industries in India.
• India is now the largest producer and consumer of sugar in the world. Maharashtra contributes over one third of the total sugar output, followed closely by Uttar Pradesh.
• Fertiliser industry
• India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers in the world.

Paper industry

• The first mechanised paper mill was set up in 1812 at Serampur in West Bengal.
• The paper industry in India is ranked among the 15 top global paper industries.

Silk industry

• India is the second-largest (first being China) country in the world in producing natural silk. At present, India produces about 16% silk of the world.
• India and joys that distinction of being the only country producing all the five known commercial varieties of silk viz Mulberry, Tropical Tussar, Oak Tussar, Eri and Muga.

Petroleum and natural gas

• First successful Oilwell was dug in India in 1889 at Digboi, Assam.
• At present a number of regions having oil reserves have been identified and oil is being extracted in these regions
• For exploration purpose , Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was established in 1956 at Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Important rivers in India

Important rivers in India

The important rivers of India are Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Indus, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kauery, Narmada and Tapti. A brief description of these rivers is given below:

Ganga:

Ganga is the most holy river according to Hindu. It has started from the Gangotri in the Himalayas and poured into the Bay of Bengal by travelling of around 2525 km. It is ranked 3rd largest river in the world. There are a number of cities had been developed across the banks of Ganga like Pataliputra, Kashi, Allahabad, Varanasi, Kolkata, etc. It had also created the World’s largest delta in West Bengal named as Sundarban delta. River Ganga has special religious significance. The Hindus consider Ganga as their mother. During religious occasions, thousands of devotees gather along the bank of the river to take holy bath.

Yamuna: 

Yamuna River had originated from Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas, then travels across several states and merged into the Ganga at Triveni, Allahabad. Its total length is 1376 km. Yamuna River passes through major cities such as Delhi, Yamuna Nagar, Agra, Mathura, Allahabad, etc. Yamuna River’s water contributed nearly 70% of Delhi’s water supply. The Taj Mahal is situated on the banks of Yamuna River. River Chambal and River Betwa are its right tributaries. Some of its important left tributaries includes River Tons, River Hindon, etc.

Brahmaputra: 

Brahmaputra River is originated from Angsi Glacier, the northern Himalayas in Tibet, then entered into the Arunachal Pradesh to Assam and then merges with the Padma River in Bangladesh. Its length is around 2900 km and plays an important role in the irrigation and transportation. It emptied into the Bay of Bengal. Guwahati, the most important city of Assam, is situated on the bank of River Brahmaputra.

Indus River: 

The Indus River is a historically famous in Asia. It originated from the Tibetan Plateau, and then flows through the Ladakh then entered into Pakistan and finally merge into the Arabian Sea after travelling a distance of 3180 km. Besides India, it also passes through China and Pakistan.

Mahanadi River: 

Mahanadi is a major river in the state of Chhattisgarh and Odisha. Mahanadi’s water is used in the irrigation and drinking purpose, it is also called the ruin of Orissa due its devastating floods over the years but till Hirakud Dam was constructed. It has a large basin area of around 1.42 sq. km. Its total length is 858 km. Cuttack, Sonepur, Sambalpur, etc. are the important cities on the bank of Mahanadi River.

Godavari: 

Godavari, also known as Dakshin Ganga, is the longest river in the southern India and 2nd largest in India after Ganga. It is originated from Maharashtra and flows through Andhra Pradesh, then merges into the Bay of Bengal after travelling a distance of 1465 km. Rajamahendravaram, the famous city of Andhra Pradesh, is situated on the bank of River Godavari.

Krishna (also called Krishnaveni): 

The 3rd longest river in India after Ganga and Godavari, Krishna River which is originated from Mahabaleswar in Maharashtra and flows through the state of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and finally merges into the Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 1400 km. Vijayawada is the most important city along the bank of River Krishna.

Kaveri: 

The Kaveri River is one odaf the large rivers in India which is originated from Talakaveri in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and flows through the states of Karnataka &Tamilnadu, finally merges into Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 765 km.

Narmada: 

Narmada River is the 5th Longest in the Indian sub-continent. It is also called the Life line of Madhya pradesh due to its huge contributions. Narmada River is originated from Narmada Kund, Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh and merges into the Arabian Sea near Gujarat after travelling a distance of 1312 km.

Tapti: 

Tapti River is one of the major rivers in Central India. Its total length is around 724 km which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and finally merges into the Gulf of Cambay (also called Gulf of Khambhat) of Arabian Sea near Gujarat. Some major cities such as Surat, Naski, etc. are located on the bank of River Tapti.

Study Notes

Study Notes

1. Kolleru Lake - Andhra Pradesh

Largest lake in India.

Located between Krishna and Godavari delta.

 2. Sambhar Lake - Rajasthan

India's largest inland salt lake.

Mahabharata mentions the Sambhar Lake as part of the kingdom of the demon king Brishparva.

 3. Pushkar Lake - Rajasthan

Located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan.

Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus.

4. Wular Lake - Jammu Kashmir

Largest Freshwater Lake in India.

Lake Basin was formed as a result of tectonic activity and is fed by the Jhelum River.

5. Pulicat Lake- Andhra Pradesh

Second largest brackish – water lake or lagoon in India.

The large spindle-shaped barrier island named Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal. 

The island is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, the launch site of India's successful first lunar space mission, the Chandrayaan-1.

6. Loktak Lake -Manipur

Largest freshwater lake in North -East India

KeibulLamjao the only floating national park in the world floats over it, which is the last natural refuge of the endangered sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer.

 7. Sasthamcotta Lake - Kerala

Largest fresh water lake in Kerala.

The purity of the lake water for drinking use is attributed to the presence of large population of larva called cavaborus that consumes bacteria in the lake water.

8. Vembanad Lake -Kerala

Longest lake in India, and the largest lake in the state of Kerala.

The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the lake.

9. Chilka Lake -Odisha

It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest lagoon in the world.

Chilika Lake is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds, on the Indian sub-continent.

10. Dal Lake - Jammu Kashmir

Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar and is integral to tourism known as the "Jewel in the crown of Kashmir" or "Srinagar's Jewel".

Asia's largest Tulip garden is on the banks of Dal Lake.

Mughal gardens, Shalimar Bagh and the NishatBagh are on the banks of Dal Lake.

11. Nalsarover Lake- Gujarat

The lake - Nalsarovar - and the wetlands around it were declared a bird sanctuary in 1969.

12. Tsomgo Lake - Sikkim

Tsongmo Lake or Changu Lake, is a glacial lake in the East Sikkim.

The lake is the venue for the Guru Purnima festival in which Jhakris of Sikkim assemble at the lake area to derive benefits from the healing qualities of the lake waters.

13. Bhimtal Lake - Uttarakhand

It is the largest lake in Kumaon region, known as the "lake district of India".

It is a "C" shaped lake.

14. Barapani Lake- Meghalaya

Barapani or Umiam Lake is in Shillong.

The origin of Lake in 1965 is due to the UmiamUmtru Hydro Electric Power Project, the first Hydel power project in the North-east region of India.

15. Nainital Lake - Uttarakhand

Kidney shaped or crescent shaped.

Situated in the Nainital district called the Lake District of India.

16. Periyar Lake -Kerala

Periyar Lake is formed by the construction of the dam across the Mullaperiyar River in 1895.

The notable elephant reserve and a tiger reserve, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the banks of PeriyarLake.

17. Hussain Sagar Lake - Telengana

The lake is in Hyderabad, built by Hazrat Hussain Shah Wali in 1562, during the rule of Ibrahim QuliQutub Shah.

Connects the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad.

A major attraction at the Hussain Sagar is the 16 meter high, 350 tonne monolithic Buddha statue on the 'Rock of Gibraltar' installed at the center of the lake.

18. Salim Ali Lake - Maharashtra

It has been renamed after the great ornithologist, naturalist Salim Ali and also known as birdman of India.

Salim Ali Sarovar (lake) popularly known as Salim Ali Talab is located near Delhi Gate, opposite HimayatBagh, Aurangabad.

19. Kanwar Lake- Bihar

The KanwarTaal or KabarTaal Lake is Asia's largest freshwater oxbow lake.

20. Nakki Lake - Rajasthan

'Nakki Lake is situated in the Indian hill station of Mount Abu in Aravalli range.

Mahatma Gandhi's ashes were immersed in this Holy Lake on 12 February 1948 and Gandhi Ghat was constructed.

21. Bhojtar Lake- Madhya Pradesh

Also known as Upper Lake lies on the western side of the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal.

Largest artificial lake in Asia.

Mountains and their types

Mountains and their types

A mountain is a geological landform that rises above the surrounding land. Typically a mountain will rise at least 1,000 feet above sea level. Some mountains exceed 10,000 feet above sealevel with the highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest, rising 29,036 feet. Small mountains (below 1,000 feet) are usually called hills. They are most often formed by movement of the tectonic plates in the Earth's crust. Great mountain ranges like the Himalayas often form along the boundaries of these plates. Tectonic plates move very slowly. It can take millions and millions

Of years for mountains to form.

Types of Mountains

There are three main types of mountains: Fold Mountains, fault block mountains, and volcanic mountains. They get their names from how they were formed.

Fold Mountains:Fold Mountains are formed when two plates run into each other or collide. The force of the two plates running into each other causes the Earth's crust to crumple and fold. Many of the world's great mountain ranges are Fold Mountains Including the Andes, Himalayas, and the Rockies.

Fault-block Mountains:Fault-block Mountains are formed along Faults where some large blocks of rock are forced upwards while others are forced down. The higher area is sometimes called a "Horst" and the lower a "graben" (see the picture below). The Sierra Nevada Mountains in the western United States are fault block mountains.

Volcanic mountains: Mountains that are caused by volcanic activity are called volcanic mountains. There are two main type of volcanic mountains: volcanoes and Dome Mountains. Volcanoes are formed when magma erupts all the way to the surface of the Earth. The magma will harden on the Earth's surface, forming mountain. 

Dome Mountains are formed when a large amount of magma builds up below the Earth's surface. This forces the rock above the magma to bulge out, forming a mountain. Examples of volcanic mountains include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount

Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

Mountain Features and Feature Description

Arête: A narrow ridge formed when two glaciers erode opposite sidesof a mountain.

Cirque: A bowl shaped depression formed by the head of a glacier usually at the foot of a mountain.

Crag: A mass of rock that projects outward from a rock face or cliff. Face the side of a mountain that is very steep.

Glacier:A mountain glacier is formed by compacted snow into ice.

Leeward side:the leeward side of a mountain is opposite the windward side. It is protected from the wind and rain by the mountain.

Horn: A horn is a sharp peak formed from multiple glaciers.

Moraine: A collection of rocks and dirt left behindby glaciers.

Pass: A valley or path between mountains.

Peak: The highest point of a mountain.

Ridge: A long narrow top of a mountain or series of mountains.

Slope: The side of a mountain

On Forests

On Forests

Tropical Evergreen 

These forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the north-eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22 degree celcius.

Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short structured trees followed by tall variety of trees. In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany,ebony, etc.

Semi Evergreen Forests

The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests. Main species are white cedar, hillock and kail

The British were aware of the economic value of the forests in India, hence, large scale exploitation of these forests was started. The structure of forests was also changed. The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The British also used timber of construction activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. 

Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the most widespread forests in India. They are also called the monsoon forests. They spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous

The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100- 200 cm. These forests are found in the north-eastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and Orissa. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum and sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests.

Dry deciduous

Forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm.On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn forests. These forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian plain, these forests have a parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed with patches of grass are common. As the dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest appears like a vast grassland with naked trees all around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests. In the western and southern part of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty due to low rainfall and overgrazing.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semiarid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation. Important species found are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as the under growth.

Mountain Forests

In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the southern mountain forests.

The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of forests between an altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750m, pine forests are also well-developed in this zone, with Chirr Pine as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m. 

The southern mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other trees of this forest of economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.

Littoral and Swamp Forests

India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites- Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).

They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants. Criss crossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of birds

In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.

Study Notes : Movement of the Earth.

Study Notes : Movement of the Earth.

• Rotation: West to east in 24 hours (produces day and night) – Line separating light and dark halves is known as the circle of illumination.
• Revolution: Movement around the sun 365 ¼ days (produces seasons) – Jan 2 Closest to the sun- called Perihelion.
• July 4: Farthest from the sun- called Aphelion.
• Eccentricity: (Produces Ice-age and Global Warming) Shape of the earth’s orbit changes in a cyclic period running between 90,000-1, 00,000 years.
• Precession: This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, like a spinning top. Takes about 26,000 years to complete one cycle.
• Presently – pointing at Pole star.
• AD 4000- pointing at Alpha cephai
• AD 14,000 – pointing at Star vega
• Summer Solstice: 21st June: Sun overhead at tropic of cancer.
• Winter Solstice: 22nd Dec: Sun overhead at the tropic of Capricorn.
• Vernal Equinox: 21st March.
• Autumn Equinox: 23rd Sep

Moon

Our moon is 1/4th of the size of Earth.

Blue Moon is said to occur when the second full moon appears within the same month.

Highest Mountain on Moon: Leibnitz: 10,660m

Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin: Set foot on the ocean of Tranquillity

In a calendar year, a maximum of seven eclipses can occur( combining solar and lunar eclipses)

Longitude and Latitudes

Any location on Earth is described by two numbers-its latitude and its longitude. If a pilot or a ship's captain wants to specify position on a map, these are the “coordinates" they would use.

Latitudes

• Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the Equator.Each degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles (111 km) apart; there is a variation due to the fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid (slightly egg-shaped). To remember latitude, imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder 
• ("ladder-tude").
• The equator is at 0° latitude and separates Earth’s Northern and Southern hemispheres.
• Locations north of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator) and 90° N (the North Pole).
• Locations south of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator) and 90° S (the South Pole)

Longitude and Time

• The vertical longitude lines are also known as meridians. They converge at the poles and are widest at the equator (about 69 miles or 111 km apart). Zero degrees longitude is located at Greenwich, England (0°). The degrees continue 180° east and 180° west where they meet and form the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean. Greenwich, the site of the British Royal Greenwich Observatory, was established as the site of the prime meridian by an international conference in 1884.
• Earth moves 1 degree in 4 minutes.
• Standard meridians differ from Greenwich Meridian by the multiples of 15 degree or 7.5degree.
• Russia have 11 time zones
• USA and Canada have 5 time zones.
• India has one time zone from 82.5 degree east from the Standard time it is near Allahabad 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT

The International Date Line

1. 180 degrees meridian is the International Date Line

2. A traveller crossing this date line from east to west will lose a day.

3. A traveller going from west to east will gain a day.

Construction of Earth's Interior

• Relative Density= 5.5
• Seismic Waves
• p-waves or primary waves: Also called longitudinal or compressional waves- like sound waves- fastest
• Secondary waves or S-waves: Also called transverse or distortional waves- like water ripples- cannot pass through liquid material.
• Surface Waves or L waves: Long wave length waves- cause most destruction.
• Movement of the Earth.
• Rotation: West to east in 24 hours (produces day and night) – Line separating light and dark halves is known as the circle of illumination.
• Revolution: Movement around the sun 365 ¼ days (produces seasons) – Jan 2 Closest to the sun- called Perihelion.
• July 4: Farthest from the sun- called Aphelion.
• Eccentricity: (Produces Ice-age and Global Warming) Shape of the earth’s orbit changes in a cyclic period running between 90,000-1, 00,000 years.
• Precession: This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, like a spinning top. Takes about 26,000 years to complete one cycle.
• Presently – pointing at Pole star.
• AD 4000- pointing at Alpha cephai
• AD 14,000 – pointing at Star vega
• Summer Solstice: 21st June: Sun overhead at tropic of cancer.
• Winter Solstice: 22nd Dec: Sun overhead at the tropic of Capricorn.
• Vernal Equinox: 21st March.
• Autumn Equinox: 23rd Sep

Moon

Our moon is 1/4th of the size of Earth.

Blue Moon is said to occur when the second full moon appears within the same month.

Highest Mountain on Moon: Leibnitz: 10,660m

Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin: Set foot on the ocean of Tranquillity

In a calendar year, a maximum of seven eclipses can occur( combining solar and lunar eclipses)

Longitude and Latitudes

Any location on Earth is described by two numbers-its latitude and its longitude. If a pilot or a ship's captain wants to specify position on a map, these are the “coordinates" they would use.

Latitudes

• Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the Equator.Each degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles (111 km) apart; there is a variation due to the fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid (slightly egg-shaped). To remember latitude, imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder 
• ("ladder-tude").
• The equator is at 0° latitude and separates Earth’s Northern and Southern hemispheres.
• Locations north of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator) and 90° N (the North Pole).
• Locations south of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator) and 90° S (the South Pole)

Longitude and Time

• The vertical longitude lines are also known as meridians. They converge at the poles and are widest at the equator (about 69 miles or 111 km apart). Zero degrees longitude is located at Greenwich, England (0°). The degrees continue 180° east and 180° west where they meet and form the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean. Greenwich, the site of the British Royal Greenwich Observatory, was established as the site of the prime meridian by an international conference in 1884.
• Earth moves 1 degree in 4 minutes.
• Standard meridians differ from Greenwich Meridian by the multiples of 15 degree or 7.5degree.
• Russia have 11 time zones
• USA and Canada have 5 time zones.
• India has one time zone from 82.5 degree east from the Standard time it is near Allahabad 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT

The International Date Line

1. 180 degrees meridian is the International Date Line

2. A traveller crossing this date line from east to west will lose a day.

3. A traveller going from west to east will gain a day.

Construction of Earth's Interior

• Relative Density= 5.5
• Seismic Waves
• p-waves or primary waves: Also called longitudinal or compressional waves- like sound waves- fastest
• Secondary waves or S-waves: Also called transverse or distortional waves- like water ripples- cannot pass through liquid material.
• Surface Waves or L waves: Long wave length waves- cause most destruction.