Tuesday, 29 August 2017

Vitamins


Vitamins, Their Sources and Diseases Caused Due to Their Deficiencies



Name of the vitamin
Main source
Disease caused due to their deficiencies
Vitamin A
Milk, carrot, dark leafy greens, fish, dried apricots, etc.
Night blindness, dryness of skin (Dermatitis)
Vitamin B1(Thiamine)
Cereals, pulses, peas
Beriberi
Vitamin B2(Riboflavin)
Liver, spinach, mushrooms, milk
Cracking of skin , reddish eye
Vitamin B6(Pyridoxine)
Fish, beef liver, vegetables
Anaemia ,dermatitis
Niacin (Nicotinic acid)
Peas, tomato, eggs
Pellagra and glossitis
Folic Acid
Green leafy vegetables, meat, egg, dried beans ,nuts
Megaloblast and in pregnant birth defects
Pentothenic Acid
 meat, yeast , pork ,yogurt ,fish eggs
Premature graying of hair, burning feet syndrome
Vitamin B12(Cyanocobalamin)
Milk, liver, meat ,milk
Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
Lemons, oranges, fresh fruits and vegetables
Scurvy, sore mouth and gums bleeding
Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Dairy products, sun rays, eggs, oily fish, milk
Many diseases of the bones, rickets in children, osteomalacia
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Milk , soyabeans, egg yolk , butter
Interferes with reproduction and causes abortion and menstrual irregularities
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)
Fish, peas and green vegetables
Causes the delayed clotting of blood

Study notes on "BLOOD"



BLOOD

  • Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
  • The quantity of blood in the human’s body is 7% of the total weight.
  • pH value of blood is 7.4.
  • There is an average of 5-6 litres of blood in human body.
  • Female contains half litre of blood less in comparison to male.
  • It also fights infection and regulates temperature. 

Blood cells are produced in BONE MARROW


bone marrow image
Red cells, white cells and platelets are made in the marrow of bones, especially the vertebrae, ribs, hips, skull and sternum. These essential blood cells fight infection, carry oxygen and help control bleeding.

Blood has four components:
  1. Plasma
  2. Red blood cells
  3. White blood cells
  4. Platelets
PLASMA -> Liquid portion of Blood
bone marrow image

It contains 92 percent water, constitutes 55 percent of blood volume. 


FUNCTION:

  • maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure 
  • volume to supplying critical proteins for blood clotting and immunity.
  • medium for exchange of vital minerals such as sodium and potassium 
  • helps to maintain a proper pH (acid-base) balance in the body, which is critical to cell function.
RED BLOOD CELLS -> Carry oxygen





  • Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells containing haemoglobin, 
  • haemoglobin (haem=iron-containing)
  • Haemoglobin enables the cells to pick up and deliver oxygen to all parts of the body, then pick up carbon dioxide and remove it from tissues.
  • Its life span is from 20 days to 120 days and are then broken down into pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver.
  • Its destruction takes place in liver & spleen. Therefore, liver is called grave of RBC.
  • they are made in the bone marrow, 
  • they have no nucleus, 
  • N.B. oxyhaemoglobin =oxygen rich haemoglobin, 
  • deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen haemoglobin

WHITE BLOOD CELLS  -> Defend Body (Fighter)


white blood cells image

  • White blood cells, also called leukocytes
  • White cells are the body's primary defense against infection. 
  • They can move out of the blood stream and reach tissues to fight infection.
  • They are essential for good health.
  • Its life span is from 1 to 2 days.
  • White blood cells have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow
PLATELETS-> Responsible for clotting
Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood and bind together when they recognize damaged blood vessels.

Study of blood = HEMATOLOGY

GS notes on "BLOOD"


Blood

The main functions of blood are to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, hormones and waste around the body. Blood also fights infection and regulates temperature. 



Composition of blood:
1. Plasma constitutes for about 54% of our blood. 92% of it is water. 
2. White blood cells and platelets constitute for about 1% of our blood. 
3. Red blood cells constitute for about 45% of our blood.


Circulatory System 

Circulation of Blood through the heart:


Systemic Vein ⇨ Sinus Venosus ⇨ Right Auricle ⇨ Right Ventricle ⇨ Pulmonary Artery ⇨ Lungs ⇨ Pulmonary Vein ⇨ Left Auricle ⇨ Left Ventricle ⇨ Trunchus Arteriosus ⇨ Systemic Circulation

Open circulatory systems allow the blood flow out of the vessels before returning to the heart via ostia. (no veins involved)E.g. insects


• Closed circulatory systems don’t allow the blood to leave the blood vessels E.g. humans advantages include faster and controlled delivery of oxygen and nutrients which allow for longer periods of activity.

Important Points: 

➧Aorta
The largest artery in the body. It carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to vessels that reach the rest of the body.
Atria
The chambers of the heart, to which the blood returns from the circulation.
Capillaries
The smallest of the body's blood vessels. Oxygen and glucose pass through capillary walls and enter the cells. Waste products such as carbon dioxide pass back from the cells into the blood through capillaries.
Cardiac Valves (Heart Valves)
Any of the four heart valves that regulate the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart.
Deoxygenated Blood -> Oxygen-poor blood.
Heart Ventricles
The lower right and left chambers of the heart.
Interventricular Septum
Interventricular septum is the stout wall separating the lower chambers (the ventricles) of the heart from one another.
Lungs
One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
Myocardium
The muscular substance of the heart; the middle of the three layers forming the outer wall of the human heart.
Oxygenated Blood -> Oxygen-rich blood.
Pulmonary Artery
The pulmonary artery and its branches deliver blood rich in carbon dioxide (and lacking in oxygen) to the capillaries that surround the air sacs.
Pulmonary Circulation
The circulation of the blood through the lungs.
Pulmonary Veins
The veins that return the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
Superior Vena Cava
The large vein that carries blood from the head, neck, arms, and chest to the heart.
Vena Cava
A large vein which returns blood from the head, neck and extremities to the heart.
Endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels that consists of just a single layer of cells. 
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood to the heart in an even flow. They have thin walls large lumens and valves. 


• The human circulatory system consists of two circuits systemic and pulmonary
• The coronary artery carries blood to the heart muscle from the aorta. (coronary vein) 
• The hepatic artery carries blood to the liver. (hepatic vein)
• The renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys. (renal veins) 
• The mesenteric arteries carry blood to the small and large intestines.


• The carotid arteries supply blood to the head. (jugular veins) 
• The subclavian arteries supply blood to the arms. (subclavian veins)
• The iliac arteries carry blood to the legs. (iliac veins)
• A portal system is a network of capillaries in one organ or tissue joined to another network of capillaries in another organ or tissue via a vein or veins. 
• A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation of an artery as blood passes through it.
• Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels. 
• A sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood pressure(normally 120/80 mmHg) 
• Atherosclerosis is the hardening of artery walls due to a build-up of fatty deposits.
• Smoking causes heart rate and blood pressure to increase. Diet high in saturated fats increase blood pressure and atherosclerosis. Exercise helps lower blood pressure. 

GS notes on "BLOOD"


BLOOD GROUP


➽BLOOD DONER AND RECEIVER


➠BLOOD TYPES ARE INHERITED




Blood Groupings

  • Father of Blood Grouping : Karl Landsteiner
  • He discovered A, B and O blood groups
  • Decastello and Sturle discovered AB blood groups

Blood Group
Can donate to
Can receive from
A
A,AB
A,O
B
B,AB
B,O
AB
AB
A,B,AB,O
O
A, B, AB, O
O


➧RH factor

  • It is a blood antigen found in RBC
  • A person can be Rh+ or Rh- depending upon the presence of Rh factor in RBC
  • Rh+ can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh- but Rh- can receive blood only from Rh- only


Blood transfusion techniques was developed by Dr. James Blundell.


GS notes on "BLOOD"


Today's post contain all DISEASES related to Blood.

DISEASE

➽Hematoma: A collection of blood inside the body tissues. Internal bleeding often causes a hematoma.

Leukemia: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally and circulate through the blood. The excessive large numbers of white cells deposit in the body's tissues, causing damage.

Multiple myeloma: A form of blood cancer of plasma cells similar to leukemia. Anemia, kidney failure and high blood calcium levels are common in multiple myeloma.

Lymphoma: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally inside lymph nodes and other tissues. The enlarging tissues, and disruption of blood's functions, can eventually cause organ failure.

Anemia: An abnormally low number of red blood cells in the blood. Fatigue and breathlessness can result, although anemia often causes no noticeable symptoms.

Hemochromatosis: A disorder causing excessive levels of iron in the blood. The iron deposits in the liver, pancreas and other organs, causing liver problems and diabetes.

Sickle cell disease: A genetic condition in which red blood cells periodically lose their proper shape (appearing like sickles, rather than discs). The deformed blood cells deposit in tissues, causing pain and organ damage.

Bacteremia: Bacterial infection of the blood. Blood infections are serious, and often require hospitalization and continuous antibiotic infusion into the veins.

Malaria: Infection of red blood cells by Plasmodium, a parasite transmitted by mosquitos. Malaria causes episodic fevers, chills, and potentially organ damage.

Thrombocytopenia: Abnormally low numbers of platelets in the blood. Severe thrombocytopenia may lead to bleeding.

Leukopenia: Abnormally low numbers of white blood cells in the blood. Leukopenia can result in difficulty fighting infections.

GS notes on "Human Brain"


HUMAN BRAIN


The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior.
The brain can be divided into three basic units: 
  1. The forebrain, 
  2. The midbrain, and 
  3. The hindbrain
The forebrain is the largest and main thinking part of the brain. It has regions which receive sensory impulses from various receptors. Separate areas of the fore-brain are specialised for hearing, smell, sight and so on.
  • Cerebrum


The Midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain. 
  • Hypothalamous
The hindbrain controls the body’s vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

  • Pons
  • Medulla
  • Cerebellum
➽CEREBRUM [Largest part of the human brain]

  • It sits at the topmost part of the brain. 
  • It is the source of intellectual activities. 
  • It holds your memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. 
  • It allows you to recognize friends, read books, and play games.
  • It controls the voluntary motor actions.
  • It is the seat of learning and memory.
  • It is the site of sensory perceptions; like tactile and auditory perceptions.
  • It is divided into two hemispheres; called cerebral hemispheres.

HYPOTHALAMUS 

  • It lies at the base of the cerebrum. 
  • It controls sleep and wake cycle (circadian rhythm) of the body. 
  • It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
  • It gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. 

CEREBELLUM 

  • It lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure.
  • It coordinates the motor functions. 
  • It is responsible for precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the posture and balance of the body.
  • Example: When you are riding your bicycle; the perfect coordination between your pedaling and steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.

MEDULLA 

  • It forms the brain stem; along with the pons. 
  • It lies at the base of the brain and continues into the spinal cord. 
  • It controls various involuntary functions 
  • Example : heart beat, respiration, size of the pupil, blood pressure, salivation and vomiting etc.

THALAMUS

  • a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery fluid that circulates through the brain's ventricles (cavities or hollow spaces) and around the surface of the brain and spinal cord. 

NEURON

Neurons are the core components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS).

Functions of the three parts of a neuron:
Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell body.
Dendrite: It receives information from axon of another cell and conducts the messages towards the cell body.
Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles. It is mainly concerned with the maintenance and growth.

SYNAPSE : It is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron.

GA Study Notes On Clouds


CLOUDS

Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes. 

According to their height, expanse, density, and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types: (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus

➤➤Cirrus

➤➤Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m). 
➤➤Cirrus clouds are the highest of all clouds and are composed entirely of ice crystals.
➤➤Cirrus clouds are precipitating clouds, although the ice crystals evaporate high 
       above the earth’s surface.
➤➤They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour.


➤➤Cumulus 
➤➤They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -7,000 m.
➤➤Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. 
 ➤➤They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there and have a flat base.
➤➤They are Often called “fair-weather” clouds.
➤➤ cumulus clouds are common over land on sunny days, when the sun heats the land creating thermal convection currents.Each thermal is distinct, and, consequently, each cumulus cloud is a distinct puff

➤➤Stratus
➤➤Stratus clouds are the lowest forming and are often called fog or mists when they are earth-bound.
➤➤As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. 
➤➤These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.Stratus clouds are formed when a large air mass cools at the same time.

➤➤Nimbus
➤➤Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.
➤➤ They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.
➤➤ These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
➤➤ Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

➤➤Most of our names for clouds come from Latin and are usually a combination of the following prefixes and suffixes:

➤➤Stratus/strato = flat/layered and smooth
➤➤Cumulus/cumulo = heaped up/puffy, like cauliflower
➤➤Cirrus/cirro = High up/wispy
➤➤Alto = Medium level
➤➤Nimbus/Nimbo = Rain-bearing cloud

We can combine these names and can build up an idea of any cloud's character. For example, if we combine nimbus and stratus we get 'nimbostratus' - a cloud which is flat and layered and has the potential for rain.

➤➤A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
➤➤High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;
➤➤Middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;
➤➤Low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus;


➤➤ clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus